Which process limits hydrogen fuel cell performance at low operating temperatures (below 0°C)?

💡 Explanation

When temperature decreases below freezing, water in the electrolyte membrane forms ice crystals because hydrogen bonds give water a relatively high freezing point and lower its entropy upon freezing, thus reducing membrane ionic conductivity and blocking proton transport. Therefore membrane ice formation is the limit, rather than catalyst damage, embrittlement, or oxygen consumption.

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